ELECTRONIC MEDIA AS INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SOCIAL STUDIES AND AS INSTRUMENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

ELECTRONIC MEDIA AS INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SOCIAL

AND BUSINESS STUDIES AND AS INSTRUMENTS OF SOCIAL

CHANGE: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM NIGERIA

Chinedu B. Ezirim

University of Port Harcourt

cbezirim@yahoo.com

O. P. Nwanna-Nzewunwa

University of Port Harcourt

Michael I. Muoghalu

Pittsburg State University

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The study evaluates the roles of electronic media (radio, computers, television, projectors, videos, internet facilities

and telecommunication facilities) in teaching effectiveness and social change from the perspective of a developing

nation--Nigeria. It surveyed six hundred teachers in various schools in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria using

questionnaires. Analysis was done using descriptive statistics, simple and multiple regression and multivariate

general linear model (GLM). The GLM procedure enabled us to investigate interactions between factors as well as

the effect of individual factors. Among the media studied, radio is revealed as the most potent instructional material

in achieving teaching efficiency and generating desired social change. Computers, projectors, and internet facilities

are found to have inherent capabilities of aiding teaching effectiveness that could redound to the attainment of

desired social change. These results have obvious implication for policy; while the use of radio instructions should

be continued, the use of the other media that have more powerful audio-visual effects should be further encouraged.

The government must implement a deliberate policy of providing these facilities to needy schools, colleges, and

universities. While teaching effectiveness is a very important factor in generating desired social change, the results

did not indicate that the attainment of social change would give rise to teaching effectiveness in the area studied.

This implies that generating teaching effectiveness is not the end itself as far as the use of instructional materials

are concerned, but a means to the end. The actual end includes the attainment of social change and development.

INTRODUCTION

Many authors have written on the use of instructional materials both in teaching social and

business studies and engineering desired social change. These authors include

Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003), Kochhar (1986), Alaka (1978), Heeks (1999), Aguokogbuo (2000),

Okafor (1988), Mkpa (1989), McLuhan (1964), Koert (2000), UNDP (1998), World Bank

(1999), and Greenwood (2001). More specifically, it was underlined in the works of these

authors that the use of instructional materials is a sine qua non in affecting and/or changing

behavior of pupils and students of every field, and especially social and business studies. It was

equally shown by some of the authors that these materials are important catalysts of social

re-engineering and change. Among the categories of instructional materials, the electronic media

have been described as the most powerful weapon of social and business studies’ instruction both

in schools and anywhere social knowledge is impacted. The reason is not far-fetched: advances

in technology have brought electronic media to the forefront as the most radical tools of

globalization and social development. Such technological breakthroughs as networked and

non-networked; projected and non-projected; visual, auditory, audio-visual electronic media are

important landmarks in knowledge transfer. With them both teaching and learning become very

pleasant experiences. Their power to teach and socialize has been varied as documented in

literature (Hepburn, 1998).

Electronic media possess some inherent advantages that make them unique in social and business

studies. For one thing, they provide the teacher with interesting and compelling platforms for

conveying information since they motivate learners to want to learn more and more. Also, by

providing opportunities for private study and reference, the learner’s interest and curiosity are

increasingly stimulated. Further, the teacher is assisted in overcoming physical difficulties that

could have hindered his effective presentation of a given topic. Teachers with low voices, for

instance, are enabled by the microphone system inherent in most electronic media. They

generally make teaching and learning easier and less stressful. They are equally indispensable

catalysts of social change and development.

Despite the inherent advantages of these media to teach and socialize, the extent to which

developing countries have benefited in attaining teaching effectiveness and desired social change

stands to be questioned. Many of the studies in advanced countries have reported the roles of

electronic media in teaching effectiveness and social change (see for instance, Hepburn, 1998).

However, not many of such studies have documented the experiences of less-developed countries

of Africa, and especially Nigeria. The paucity of empirically based observations creates the need

for many more studies in this area. For instance, we are not fully informed on whether or not

teachers in various levels of schools and colleges effectively use these media as instructional

materials, and with what effects. We are not equally empirically informed, as well, if these media

are being utilized to achieve desired social change in the country. Answers to these and other

concerns would be helpful in necessary policy directions and concerted actions. This study is an

attempt along these lines.

In this paper, we shall discuss the use of electronic media as instructional materials in social and

business studies. Before that, however, we shall make conceptual clarifications of important

terms implicated in the chosen topic, as well as general considerations of instructional media

generally used in social and business studies. These are the mainstay of the second section of the

paper. We shall also review some studies and materials on the role of electronic media in

achieving social change or development. Subsequently, we describe the methods and the

procedure employed in generating and analyzing the primary data; we also analyze the data

generated from our field work and test relevant hypotheses. Finally, we make necessary

concluding remarks.

CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

Some Important Concepts

Certain important terms are implicated in the topic and we consider it necessary to give

operational definitions. They include social studies, business studies, media, instructional media,

electronic, and electronic media. Many authors and commentaries have attempted to define social

studies, but for the purposes of this paper, we adopt the definition in Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003)

where Dike (1989) was quoted as positing that social studies is: “… a new field of study that is

concerned with how man interacts and interrelates with his fellow man in his society and with the

physical and chemical factors in his environment. Social studies is also the study of the impact of

science and technology on man and his environment” (Kochhar, 1988:2). The above definition is

important to us especially when we can infer from it an emphasis on the application of the

products of science and technology (such as electronic media and other instructional materials) in

achieving desired social interactions, and lubricating healthy relationships in the society. The

point being that even when social studies concerns itself with the effects of the products of

science and technology on the individual, society, and their environment, use is still made of

some of such products to make social studies effective. Business studies, on the other hand, are

seen as the science of how man interacts with his fellow man in an environment where exchange,

transfers, production, distribution and consumption of goods and services “rule the roost.”

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defined media as “the main

means of communicating with large numbers of people, especially television, radio, [and]

newspapers.” Thus, all the ways, channels, tools and aids through which information, instruction,

and/or knowledge could be conveyed to learners in typical social and business studies, can be

seen as instructional media. Instructional media, therefore, are such things (materials and

equipment) that can help the teacher to communicate effectively needed knowledge or ideas to

the students; such that at the end of such instruction, the student can be that which the teacher

predetermined in his objective statement. As Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003:117) puts it,

“instructional materials are those materials that are used to arouse students’ learning.” They are

also called teaching aids, which brings life to learning (Alaka, 1978).

The term electronic is defined as something having or operating with the aid of, many small

components (e.g. microchips) that control and direct an electric current. Thus, electronic

calculators, electronic keyboards, electronic dictionaries, electronic bibles, are all examples of

electronic equipment. Electronics is the branch of science and technology that deals with the

behavior of electric currents in electronic equipment. Electronic media relates materials,

equipment, and processes that utilize electronic technology to pass on information, knowledge,

and ideas to people living in society. For instance, radios, televisions, computers, e-mails, and

projectors can be used by instructors to educate their students effectively. They are special types

of instructional materials.

General Considerations of Instructional Media

Good (1973) in Awotua-Efebo (1999:212) defined instructional material as: “Any device with

instructional content or function that is used for teaching purposes, including books, textbooks,

supplementary reading materials, and audiovisual and other sensory materials, scripts for radio

and television instrumentation, programs for computer-managed packaged sets of materials for

construction or manipulation.” From this perceptive, we can reaffirm that the term instructional

media would include any material or equipment that a teacher can profitably use to facilitate

teaching to and learning by his students. The design, development, and art of producing such

materials are a major concern of educational technology (

Vikoo, 2003). Thus, educational technology has been viewed by Dike (1999:10) as “a systematic

application of scientific or organized knowledge to identifying and analyzing educational

problems, evolving and managing programs for solving these educational problems.”

Notable criteria abound in literature on the taxonomical basis of instructional media. As in Vikoo

(2003:139), such criteria for classifying instructional materials include the degree of

expertise/technical skills needed for production, nature of materials, physiological parameter or

sensory modality, whether or not projection is involved, place the material is produced, and

miscellaneous characteristics. In terms of degree of expertise, we have high technology materials

such as computers, TV, internet, etc., and low technology materials such as pictures, globes,

printed (such as textbooks), and non-printed materials such as radio (Alaezi, 1990). On the basis

of physiological parameters, we talk of the particular sensory modality of the learner, and thus

classify instructional materials into auditory visual, audio-visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, and

kinesthetic materials (Romiszowski, 1995). Visual materials appeal to the sense of vision (the

eye), such as still pictures. Auditory materials appeal to the sense of hearing (the ears), such as

radio, while audio-visual materials appeal to both senses of hearing and vision, such as the

television. Tactile materials appeal to the sense of touching (the skin), such as the Braille, while

olfactory materials appeal to the sense of smell (the nose), such as some chemical specimen.

Gustatory materials involve the sense of taste (the tongue), such as sample foods; while

kinesthetic materials involve sense of muscular coordination (the muscles) with game materials,

such as football as the media example. We shall not over-labor the general typology of

instructional materials as this has been treated by another group. We shall restrict ourselves to

electronic media, in the ensuing discussion.

Electronic Media Used in Social and Business Studies

From our conceptual clarification, electronic media used in social and business studies would

include all instructional materials that are electronically generated. They can be networked when

a number of equipments or materials are inter-connected or inter-related in lubricating

information flow (Koert, 2000); or non-networked, if otherwise. The list of electronic media

would include: radio, television, projectors, tape recorders, video sets, computers, internet

facilities, and telecommunication facilities. We shall describe some of these media below and

point out their implications for teaching and learning social and business studies.

Radio

This is perhaps the most prominent audio teaching aid that is used in social and business studies.

The widespread use of radio sets is not unconnected with the fact that many families own radio

sets since it is readily affordable. Its use is almost universal as it can be used in offices, market

places, and schools. Through radio broadcast, educational, cultural and social knowledge can

readily be communicated. Social re-orientation, political convictions and education, and social

change have all been accomplished using this medium. The effectiveness of radio towards

attaining these ends has been confirmed in its ability to cover events appropriately and enable

information communicated to a wide audience at the same time, and where necessary repeatedly.

Seminars, lectures, workshops can be disseminated through the radio channel effectively.

Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003) enumerated a number of merits and demerits of radio as instructional

materials, which include: (a) It is far less expensive than TV (many schools can afford to buy a

radio set), (b) A very wide coverage of audience is possible through radio lectures prepared by

experts and can be relayed to a vast number of people at the same time (e.g. IMTUNIALF

program), (c) It can broadcast events immediately as they happen (unlike television). Radio

broadcasts are wordily interesting because radio transmits music and drama.

The disadvantages of radio as an instructional medium can equally be itemized to include: (a) It

does not allow students the opportunity to ask questions during educational broadcasts, (b) Radio

speakers talk at their own speed without knowing if the listeners are following, (c) Educational

broadcasts (other than a particular school program) usually come on at odd times when some

listeners may be too weak or tired to listen, such as late at night. Some people learn better when

they see and hear the teacher at the same time.

The Tape Recorder

The tape recorder is an audio teaching aid. It uses cassette tapes to record learning experiences in

class or from radio or television documentaries, which can be replayed in class or home. The

cassette tape recorder is a very popular instructional aid. Aguokogbuo (2000:237) also gave the

advantages and disadvantages of tape recorders as follows: (a) The tape recorder is simple to

operate, (b) It is cheaper than most other projected and/or electronic equipment, (c) It is usually

portable and can be transferred from one place to another. The disadvantages of tape recorders

include the following: (a) It is an audio medium and appeals to the sense of hearing only,

therefore limiting students’ comprehension of information. Compared with television, which

appeals to the sense of sight and sound, this is a big disadvantage, (b) Recorded tapes become

bad when not used often and could damage the play head of the player as a result.

Computers and Internet Facilities

Computers are very efficient equipment used as instructional materials in social and business

studies. Several software and programs have been developed over time for this purpose. Notable

among these are statistical, processing and spreadsheet packages for social sciences. With these

and more, social knowledge leading to behavioral changes is communicated to the learner. The

computer technology has made it possible for teachers and students to avail themselves of

internet facilities. Websites abound where instructors and learners can visit in order to obtain

needed information. Efficient teachers of social and business studies in institutions of higher

learning have effectively impacted their students by referring them to designated websites where

they received instructions. Many libraries are now going on-line with the effect that learners and

researchers can visit them electronically by means of computers instead of having to go

physically to such centers. This is highly innovative.

Telecommunication Equipment

This is equipment that utilizes the auditory mechanism to convey information to the hearers.

Some in this category now possess visual properties, such as the GSM cell phones. The teacher

can effectively utilize telephones to communicate short messages, guidance counseling, and other

related issues. The use of telecommunication gadgets as instructional materials is not widespread

in less-developed countries (LDCs) or rural areas; they are relatively expensive to maintain.

Projectors

Projectors are hardware equipment that enables learners to vividly grasp the contents of software

materials such as slides, filmstrips, transparencies, papers and pictures (in the form of still

pictures or motion pictures). There are over-head projectors, slide projectors, and

computer-driven projectors. These are veritable learning or teaching aids in social studies. The

advantages of projectors lie in the powerful visual and audio content of the devices. They have

both high and low technology content.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

It is a settled fact in literature that a very important mission of teaching social studies and other

related fields is not only to stimulate desired social behavior in the learner, but equally to

facilitate social change and development. The use of appropriate tools of instruction, such as

electronic media, speeds up the accomplishment of these objectives. Perhaps, this is the point

underscoring the argument of Koert (2000:1) that “dialogue” or information exchange through

networked (electronic) media will have to play a role of increasing importance in development,

whereby networked media are in that way to facilitate rural networking and social change”. The

World Bank (1999:9) reported that “one of the greatest hardships endured by the poor, and by

many others, who live in the poorest countries, is their sense of isolation. The new

communication technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation and to open access to

knowledge in ways unimaginable not long ago.” Electronic media being an essential catalyst

assists social education in achieving such globalization ends. They are not only content

providers, but also facilitators and stimulators of social change (Koert, 2000:3).

Much earlier (in the 1960s), Schramm (1964:19, 127, 131) submitted that the only way

developing economies could rapidly and effectively speed the flow of information, offer

education where it had never been offered before, and teach literacy and technical skills very

widely was to make full use of modern communication, which electronic media represents.

Invariably, electronic media “are a liberating force because they can break the bonds of distance

and isolation and transport people from a traditional society to ‘the great society,’ where all eyes

are on the future and the faraway.” Thus, they can create a climate for development, and

contribute substantially to the amount and kinds of information available to the people of a

developing country (Schramm, 1964; Koert, 2000).

Individual studies on the roles of different types of technology (ICT) exist in literature with

varying results. For instance, Barr (1998:152-167) suggested that there is a correlation between

telephone densities and level of economic development. It was equally suggested in the study that

causality is inferable between basic telecommunication services and socio-economic

development.

Koert (2000) argued that Barr’s (1998) suggestions have not been fully established as to the exact

correlation between telephone density and the level of economic development, or between

increasing telephone density and economic growth. While not disagreeing on the possibility of

significant effects of the above variables on the economy, Koert (2000) cautioned against the

tendency of over-estimating the contributions of basic telecommunication services and the

Internet on rural or social development.

Melkote (1991) also found that possible correlation suggested to exist between mass media and

socio-economic development (which consequently placed the former to be an indicator and agent

of modernization in societies) by earlier studies, should not be taken to mean express causality.

Against a priori expectations of significant impact of both radio and television, only radio was

found to effect major change in information provision to people in rural areas in developing

economies. Television coverage and use in rural areas are still limited and the focus is usually

more of entertainment than education.

Neil (1979), in Hepburn (1998:1), described television and school as two competing learning

systems, estimating that educators were exhorted to make sure that students study television’s

effects, its biases, and its relationship to learning. Predicating on the above, Hepburn (1998:1)

observed that “the pervasive influence of electronic media in the 1990s has made obsolete the

1960s model of political and civic socialization among American Youth.” She recommended that

“time has come for social studies teachers to update long-established views of learning to

incorporate the effects of electronic media among the youth.” Social scientists, she continued,

should “study socialization as a process wherein young people develop their attitudes towards

society, the government, and public affairs” (Hepburn, 1998:1).

Koert (2000) pointed out that specific characteristics of the mass media may limit the

contribution media can make to social change and rural development. Against that background,

FAO (1998:19-22) suggested that the intrinsic limitations of individual media can be remedied

by a combined use of electronic media for a concerted communication effort, with the media

each addressing different aspects of that effort, in line with their individual strengths, and

mutually reinforcing their individual contributions. A very interesting characteristic of electronic

media relates to their ability to reduce the level of equivocality in a message. Communication

theory assumes that a given message possesses a certain level of equivocality, and that some

media are more capable of reducing that equivocation than others. It is argued that the extent to

which a given electronic medium can reduce equivocality in a message determines its richness.

By implication, a rich medium is one which can send messages which leaves less room for

ambiguity in interpretation. Koert (2000) identified four criteria for richness of a specific

medium, namely, “opportunity for direct and speedy feedback; possibility to use more types of

signals (or cues), such as body language, volume, and intonation; use of natural language; and the

possibility to specifically adapt the message to circumstances of individual reception.” When a

message is more complicated and voluminous, the chances are greater for ambiguous

interpretations. This would imply that the medium conveying such a message deploy more of the

above factors (see Trevino, Daft, and Lengel, 1990: 71-94).

Broadcasting mass media, such as radio and television, in all their popularity exhibit some

intrinsic shortcomings along these lines. These include: “one-way communication with little

possibility for feedback, physical distance between sender and receiver, and reinforcement of

existing power structure.” Others include “the difficulty of retaining the information for latter use

and the susceptibility, at the same time, of messages to alternative interpretations” (Koert,

2000:4). Notwithstanding, Mowlana and Wilson (1990:151-158) insisted that radio remains the

most used electronic mass medium in rural areas of less-developed countries (LDCs). FAO

(1998:6) corroborated this position in its belief that the presence of local radio stations coupled

with the availability of small room for “easy and affordable access” in relatively large

geographical areas is a sine qua non for development. It is on this note that local radio stations

are seen as the most important mass media when the question of contribution to rural

development is raised. Television stations, on the other hand, are based in major cities, or even in

other countries, which reinforces the negative aspect of electronic mass media. These include the

problems of one-way communication, lack of feedback opportunities, and physical distance

between sender and receiver. However, the television offers the additional benefit of visual

information, which makes possible a slightly different type of information to be provided, since a

less equivocal message can be relayed using the combination of sound and vision. Television

equally shares with radio the difficulties associated with retention of information (Koert, 2000).

METHOD OF STUDY

The study followed the quasi-experimental research design which is very suitable for studies in

social and management sciences where respondents’ opinion are sought and evaluated for

possible inferences. The critical research instrument was the questionnaire. Construction of the

questionnaire followed the Likert scale of rank-observations on a four-point maximum scale. The

study covered a total of 600 teachers teaching in various schools that are located in the Niger

Delta Region of Nigeria. The first analysis of survey data was carried out by using simple

descriptive statistical techniques involving the construction and analysis of frequency distribution

tables, which were afterwards translated into mean scores and percentages, where applicable.

The second set of tools of analysis involved the use of simple and multiple regression analysis

and the multivariate general linear model (GLM). The GLM multivariate procedure also

provided regression analysis and analysis of variance for multiple dependent variables by one or

more factor variables or covariables. The procedure enables one to investigate interactions

between factors as well as the effects of individual factors. Calculations were made of effects

using Pillai’s Trace, Wilks’ Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace, and Roy’s Largest Root tests. Also, the

paper conducted tests of between-subjects effects with type III sum of squares as the default

method of evaluating different hypotheses. Inclusively, we conducted the univariate analysis of

variance tests of between-subjects effects under the same default scenario as in the multivariate

case. This helped to dichotomize individual effects as they apply to respective electronic media.

(For more detailed explanation of the GLM procedure, see Nurosis, 2001.) The results of the

univariate analysis of variance tests produced similar results as those obtained in the multivariate

case, so they are not reported in this paper.

The dependent variables relate to two critical questions asked in the questionnaire in respect of

extent of occurrence of (a) teaching effectiveness and (b) social change in the Niger Delta Region

of Nigeria in the light of the use of electronic instructional materials. The independent variables

relate to the extent of the use of individual electronic media (namely, radio, computers,

television, projectors, videos, internet facilities and telecommunication facilities) as instructional

materials in social and business studies in a region. The observations of the ranked Likert-type

questions constituted the values used for the purposes of estimation of the implicated models.

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Preliminary Information

Six hundred teachers currently teaching social and business studies in various colleges or high

schools in the Niger Delta Region were studied; using the questionnaire as the data generation

tool. Out of the 600 questionnaire sets, 535 (or 89.17%) were returned and utilized for this work.

The mean age of the teachers was 32.63 years, while the modal class ranges between 26 and 30

years. This suggests that a good number of the teachers had less than 15 years of experience in

terms of period of service. This, however, is not expected to undermine the result of this study in

any way. For instance, all the respondents attested to their awareness and/or use of electronic

media in one form or the other as instructional materials. Over 77% of the teachers have had at

least moderately high exposure on the usage of these media in learning and teaching. Only about

22% had little exposure (see Table 1).

Table 1: Extent of Exposure of Teachers to Electronic Media as Instructional Materials

Response Weight Frequency Total Percentage

Great 3 65 195 26.90

Moderate 2 185 370 51.03

Little 1 160 160 22.07

None 0 124 0 0

Total 535 725 100.00

Source: Computed from questionnaire responses.

Typology and Usage of Electronic Media

The teachers identified the major electronic instructional materials known to them to include

radio, computers, television, projectors, videos, internet facilities, and telecommunication

facilities. The extent to which these media are useful for instructional purposes on a general note

is summarized in Table 2. As revealed, the most utilized instructional media in their perception

of usefulness is radio, which scored a mean of 2.96 or mean percentage of 74.06%. This is

followed by videos (s= 2.46 or 61.43%), then projectors (s = 2.36 or 59.05%). Others that were

not highly scored include computers (38.59%), internet facility (35.05%), telecommunication

facilities (35.28%), and television (27.67%). These observations tend to reveal the prominence of

radios, projectors and video facilities as important aids of teaching among the teachers studied.

Table 2: The Use of Electronic Media in Instructions in Social and Business Studies in

Respondents’ Areas

Electronic Media

Total

Score

Maximum

Possible Score

Mean

Score

% to

Max.

Score

Radio 1570 2120 2.96 74.06

Computers 795 2060 1.54 38.59

Television 571 2060 1.11 27.70

Projectors 1240 2100 2.36 59.05

Videos 1290 2100 2.46 61.43

Internet Facilities 749 2140 1.40 35.05

Telecom Facilities 754 2140 1.41 35.28

Instructional Materials and Teaching of Social and Business Studies

Table 3 reveals the extent to which electronic media has proved useful in teaching social and

business studies in the schools in this region of the country (66.58% of the respondents claim that

the extent of usefulness is great, while 28.25% conceived it as moderately great). Only 5.24%

said the extent was little; generally, they all agreed that the media is useful in some way.

Table 3: Extent of their Usefulness in Teaching Social and Business Studies

Responses Weight Frequency Total Percentage

Great 3 275 825 66.58

Moderate 2 175 350 28.25

Little 1 64 64 5.17

None 0 16 0 0

Total 530 1239 100.00

Source: Computed from questionnaire responses.

Table 4: Factors Determining the Usefulness of Electronic Media

Responses

Total

Score

Maximum

Possible

Score

Mean

Score

% to

Max.

Score

i) Appropriateness to learners’

ages

979 2020 1.94 48.51

ii) Relevance to lessons 1495 2080 2.88 71.88

iii) Simplicity in presenting just

essential details

1518 2080 2.92 73.08

iv) Adequate in size 1040 2060 2.02 50.49

v) Interest in respect of learners 1320 1960 2.69 67.34

vi) Simplification of concepts 1605 2020 3.18 79.46

vii) Durability 1404 2100 2.68 66.90

viii) Readily Available 1380 2060 2.68 66.99

ix) Affordability 1435 2140 2.68 67.06

x) Accuracy of materials

presented

1205 1980 2.43 60.86

xi) Clarity and beauty of

materials

1454 2058 2.83 70.63

Source: Computed from questionnaire responses.

The respondents identified and ranked the factors that determine the usefulness of electronic

media as instructional materials in teaching social and business studies. Their responses are

summarized in Table 4. As shown, the most important determinant was revealed to be the ability

of the media to simplify concepts taught (79.46%, s = 3.18). This was followed by simplicity in

presentation (73.08, s = 2.92), relevance of the media to lessons (71.88, s = 2.88), and clarity

and beauty of materials (70.63%, s = 2.83). Other factors of fairly significant importance are the

ability to generate interest on the part of the learners (67.34%, s = 2.69), affordability (67%, s =

2.68), readily available (67%, s = 2.68), and durability (67%, s = 2.68). Adequacy in size,

accuracy of materials presented, and appropriateness to learners’ ages were only moderately

mentioned by the teachers scoring mean (s) of 2.02, 2.43, and 1.94 or mean-percentage scores of

50.49%, 60.85% and 48.51%, respectively. It is worthwhile to know how the respondents would

rank the various functions in light of the above criteria and in order of perceived importance.

Table 5: Usefulness of Instructional Materials in Teaching Social, Management, and Business

Studies

Responses

Total

Score

Maximum

Possible

Score

Mean

Score

% to

Max.

Score

i) Extension of experience

available to learners

1565 2080 3.01 75.24

ii) Provision of compelling

springboards to teachers

1620 2040 3.18 79.41

iii) Assistance on in

overcoming physical

difficulties to teachers

1476 1960 3.01 75.26

iv) Stimulant to students

interest

1685 2040 3.30 82.60

v) Provision for differences

of learners’ facilities

1461 2040 2.86 71.57

vi) Ease of

teaching/learning

1664 2140 3.11 77.80

vii) Aid communication

process

1620 2020 3.21 80.20

Source: Computed from questionnaire responses.

Table 5 summarizes the responses as to the ways in which the use of electronic media proves

useful as instructional materials in social and business studies. That these media extends the

experience available to learners was scored 75.24% (Mean = 3.01). Other functions of these

media as instructional materials are identified by the respondents to include the provision of

compelling spring boards to teachers (79.41%, Mean = 3.18); assistance in overcoming physical

difficulties to teachers (75.26%, s = 3.01); provision for differences in learners’ faculties

(71.57%, s = 2.86); stimulation of students’ interests (82.6%, s = 3.3); ease of teaching/learning

(77.8%, s = 3.11); and aiding communication process (80.2%, s = 3.21). On a four-point

maximum Mean-scale (i.e. 100%), these results indicate that all the identified functions of

electronic media are seen to be highly important by the respondents. However, the most

important function remains that electronic instructional materials stimulate students’ interest to

learn.

Problems Attendant to Use of Electronic Media

Certain problems were identified to associate with the use of electronic materials in the area

under study (see Table 6). Among the six cardinal ones considered grave by the teachers, the

problems of high cost of acquisition and maintenance was seen as the most serious; this was

scored 80% (s = 3.2). Closely following in the order of gravity are the problems of propagation

of social vices among students (79.29%, s = 3.08), and enhancement of unethical behavior

(70.59%, s = 2.82). It is of note that the television, video, and internet facilities were seen as the

worst culprits to the problems of social vices and unethical behavior among students. Other

problems of moderate gravity were proneness to risks of obsolesce (67.14, s = 2.69) and

requirement of long-usage–learning duration (58.42%, s = 2.34).

Table 6: Problems Associated with Electronic Media as Instructional Materials

Responses

Total

Score

Maximum

Possible

Score

Mean

Score

% to

Max.

Score

i) Acquisition /

Maintenance cost

1648 2060 3.20 80.10

ii) Ineffectiveness in erratic

power supply areas.

1509 1960 3.08 77.04

iii) Propagate social vices 1665 2100 3.17 79.29

iv) Enhances Unethical

behavior

1440 2040 2.82 70.59

v) Requires long

usage-learning duration

1145 1960 2.34 58.42

vi) Prone to obsolescence 1410 2100 2.69 67.14

Source: Computed from questionnaire responses.

Electronic Media, Teaching Effectiveness, and Social Change

It is believed that social and business studies when properly instructed are useful instruments of

generating desired social change. It is also posited that electronic media enhances this instruction

towards achieving desired social change. Following this, questions were asked relating to the

extent to which this desirable societal objective is being achieved, in the light of the use of

electronic media in teaching. As depicted in Table 7, 36.55% of the teachers studied believed that

social change and development is being achieved in the Niger Delta Region on a great note. Just

over half (50.76%) of the respondents said this change and development is being achieved

moderately, while 12.69% believed that only little change and development is being achieved.

Generally, it can be concluded that social change is being experienced in the area no matter the

extent. The critical questions, however, relate to the direction of change and which of the

electronic media was likely to have contributed most to the attainment of social change and

development. The other question relates to whether or not teaching effectiveness is directly

related to the attained social change and vice versa.

Table 7: Achievement of Social Change and Development in Respondents’ Areas

Responses Weight Frequency Total Percentage

Great 3 120 360 36.51

Moderate 2 251 502 50.91

Little 1 124 124 12.58

None 0 40 0 0

Total 535 986 100.00

Source: Computed from questionnaire responses.

TEST OF HYPOTHESES

Two main composite null hypotheses naturally derive from the research questions. One, there is

no significant relationship between effectiveness in teaching social and business studies and the

use of individual electronic instructional media; the other is that there is no significant

relationship between desired social change in the Niger Delta Region and the use of individual

electronic instructional media in teaching social and business studies. These hypotheses were

tested using results of the simple and multiple regression analysis as well as those of the

multivariate general linear model. These results are depicted in Tables 8 through 10.

Table 8: Relationships between Electronic Media and Teaching Effectiveness and Generational

of Social Change

Panel A: Bivariate Simple Regression Results

Teaching Effectiveness Social Change

Variables F-statistic Probability F-statistic Probability

Radio 4.320 .040[sig.] 4.287 .041(sig)

Computer 1.494 .224 (n.s) 2.544 .114 (n.s)

Television 2.419 .123 (n.s) 2.656 .106 (n.s)

Projecting Equipment 4.156 .044 (sig.) 2.298 .133 (n.s)

Video 3.621 .060 (sig.) 0.165 .685 (n.s)

Internet 2.362 .127 (n.s) 1.884 .173 (n.s)

Telecom Equipment 0.041 .841 (n.s) 0.587 .445 (n.s.)

Panel B: Stepwise Multiple Regression Results

Include variable(s) t-statistic Probability F-statistic Probability

Radio 2.078 .040 2.895 .006(sig)

Constant 13.329 .000 2.661 .010(sig)

Excluded variable(s)

Computer 0.512 .609

0.014 .989(n.s)

Television 0.457 .648 0.574 .569(n.s)

Projecting Equipment 1.531 .129 1.281 .206(n.s)

Video 1.046 .298 -0.740 .463(n.s)

Internet 1.099 .274 1.169 .248(n.s)

Telecom -0.709 .480 0.396 .694(n.s)

Source: SPSS computer results.

Panel A of Table 8 shows the relationship between individual electronic media and teaching

effectiveness on one side and generation of desired social change on the other, while Panel B

shows the step-wise multiple regression results of the same relations. As indicated in the simple

regression relationship, three variables were seen to significantly relate with instructional or

teaching effectiveness. They are radio (F = 4.32, P = .04, sig. at 5% level), projecting equipment

(F = 4.156, P = .044, sig. at 5% level), and video (F = 3.621, P = .06, sig. at 10% level). Other

variables are not significant. With these we are inclined to infer that there are significant

relationships between the use of radios, projecting equipment, and videos as instructional

materials and teaching effectiveness in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. On the other hand,

there are no significant relationships between the use of computers, televisions, internet facilities,

and telecomm equipments as instructional materials and teaching effectiveness in colleges in the

Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. By implication, only radio, video, and projecting equipments

were seen by the teachers studied as contributing significantly to their teaching effectiveness. The

other electronic media are not seen as of any significant effect in the area under study.

Table 9: Result of the Multivariate Tests of the General Linear Model

Effect Type of Test Value F Sig.

Intercept Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.353

.647

.546

11.744

.000

Radio Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.147

.853

.173

3.718

.032

Computer Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.074

.926

.080

1.729

.190

TV Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.070

.930

.075

1.608

.212

1.608

Projectors Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.111

.889

.125

2.682

.080

Video Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.045

.955

.047

1.018

.370

Internet Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.88

.912

.096

2.063a

.140

Telecom Pillai’s Trace

Wilks’ Lambda

Hotelling’s Trace

Roy’s Largest Root

.059

.941

.063

1.349

.270

a.Exact statistic; b Design: Intercept + Radio + Computer

+ TV+ Proj. + Video + Internet + Telecom

From Table 8, we see that only the use of radio facility as the only significant electronic media

that relates with social change variables (F = 4.287, P = .041 sig. at 5%). The other variables are

not significant. Thus, we can infer that there is a significant relationship between the use of radio

as instructional materials and the generation of desired social change in the Niger Delta Region

of Nigeria. The opposite inference is true for the use of the other electronic media in generating

desired social change. This result is not surprising considering the level of development of the

country in general and the Niger Delta Region in particular. The level of poverty as reflected by

the low per capita income is another reason for the low use, as it were, of the other electronic

media which are considered expensive. The neglect of her schools in terms of funding by the

government is yet another reason. It is hoped that in the near future the trend will improve.

The results of the step-wise multiple regression analysis reveals that only the radio facility is

significant at a 5% level for both dependent variables (see Table 8). This result was also

corroborated by the estimation results of the general linear model. For instance, as shown in

Table 9, only the radio was seen as the most effective medium used to generate desired social

change in the area. The results of Pillai’s Trace, Wilks’ Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace and Roy’s

Largest Root tests of the Multivariate General Linear Model confirms the use of radio as the most

effective electronic media in bringing about teaching effectiveness and electronic media (F =

3.718 for each of the above test; P = .032, sig.) (see Table 9). The other media were not seen to

have contributed significantly towards positive social change. The reasons for these are not

far-fetched. As already pointed out in the section on theoretical background, the radio is the

commonest, most widely used and perhaps cheapest of all the electronic media under study.

Every family, to say the least, possesses a transistor radio. Other media are seen to be expensive

to the average family, which is still battling with poverty in the region. These results agree with

the result of a similar study by Koerted (2000:6) using the Peru experience. It was particularly

submitted in the study that local mass media (e.g., the Radio Sicuania) are not just

“communicators,” but also local “social actors,” where the radio remains the medium with the

largest coverage in Peru.

Table 10: General Linear Model Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Source Dependent Variable F Sig.

Corrected Model Teaching

Schange

.610

2.370

.744

.038

Intercept Teaching

Schange

18.102

3.892

.000

.055

Radio Teaching

Schange

.047

7.352

.829

.010

Computer Teaching

Schange

.000

3.499

.999

.068

TV Teaching

Schange

.534

2.477

.469

.123

Projector Teaching

Schange

1.486

3.463

.229

.069

Video Teaching .169 .683

Schange 2.014 .163

Internet Teaching

Schange

.126

3.900

.724

.055

Telecomm Teaching

Schange

1.769

.722

.190

.400

Error Teaching

Schange

Total Teaching

Schange

Corrected Total Teaching

Schange

a. R-squared = .089 (Adjusted R-squared = -.056)

b. R-squared = -.274 (Adjusted R-squared = .158)

The next question is whether or not, by using electronic media, teaching effectiveness brings

about desired social change in the region under study or vice versa. The use of the multivariate

General Linear Model tests was employed. The results as in Table 10 show that, in general, by

the instrumentality of all the electronic media, proper goal-directed teaching reserves immense

potentials to bring about desired social change. This point is lent credence by the result of the

corrected model of between subject effects (F = 2.37; P = .038, sig.) in the Niger Delta Region of

Nigeria. On the other hand, the tests of between-subject effects shows that giving the use of the

identified electronic media, social change does not bring about teaching effectiveness (F = .61; P

= .744, n.s). Thus, as a priori expected, whereas effective teaching can cause desired social

change, the reverse position is not substantiated by the results of this study. The possibility and

general ability of effective teaching to generate desired social change in the Niger Delta Region

of Nigeria is enhanced by the use of radio (F = 7.38; P = .010), and marginally by computer (F =

3.499, P = .68, sig. at 10% level), projectors (F = 3.46, P = .069, sig. at 10% level), and internet

facilities (F = 3.90, P = .055, sig. at 10% level). These imply that, should the country be serious

about attaining level of teaching effectiveness that would generate desired social change,

emphasis should be placed not only on radio, projectors and videos as revealed in the earlier

analysis, but also on computers and internet facilities. True to the fact, these latter media happen

to be the most important agents of globalization at the moment; thus, their full potentials in

facilitating socialization are yet to be tapped to real advantage in Nigeria.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The study and its ensuing analysis identified radio, computers, television, projectors, videos,

internet facilities and telecommunication facilities as the main types of electronic media known

to and used for teaching in schools domicile in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Among these

media, radio is revealed as the most potent instructional material in achieving teaching efficiency

and generating desired social change. This was confirmed by the results of the simple and

multiple regression analysis, as well as the tests associated with the general linear model.

However, the F-test results of the simple linear regression models indicate that projectors and

videos exerted significant effects in enhancing teaching effectiveness. Also, the tests of

between-subject effect of the two dependent variables (teaching effectiveness and desired social

change) further reveal that computers, projectors, and internet facilities as having inherent

capabilities of aiding teaching effectiveness that would redound to the attainment of desired

social change. These inherent potentials can be tapped to great advantage. These results have

obvious implication for policy: while the use of radio instructions should be continued, the use of

the other media that have more powerful audio-visual effects can be encouraged. The

government must make a deliberate policy of providing these facilities to needy schools,

colleges, and universities. The funds made available by the government to universities in the

country for Direct Teaching and Laboratory Facilities (DTLF) should be channeled to provide

these media with priority. Colleges and polytechnics should be similarly assisted – each

according to the level of need.

It was also shown by the results that whereas teaching effectiveness is a very important factor in

generating desired social change, the result did not indicate that the attainment of social change

would give rise to teaching effectiveness in the area studied. The relationship was not that of

“bi-causational.” This implies that generating teaching effectiveness is not the end itself as far as

the use of instructional materials are concerned, but a means to the end. The actual end includes

the attainment of social change and development. This reinforces the critical purpose of teaching:

to influence behavior or to achieve behavioral changes in the society. A policy implication of this

result is that every concerted effort should be made to encourage teachers to be more effective in

their chosen duty. Encouragement can be in the way of sponsored skills enhancement programs,

such as by organizing periodic further teachers’ training programs that would educate them more

on the use of modern instructional delivery strategies and materials. It is expected that when they

get better equipped, they become more effective, and the ultimate effect would naturally be

transmitted to the learners and the society at large, in terms of desired social change.

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