Literature review: UK veterans and homelessness

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Literature review:

UK veterans and

homelessness

Executive Summary

There is quite a signiﬁcant body of research on the subject of homelessness

as experienced by veterans of the UK Armed Forces. This provides for a good

understanding of both the size of the problem and the experiences of those involved.

The proportion of veterans among London’s single homeless population is estimated to

have fallen from above 20% in the mid to late 1990s, down to 6% in 2008. In terms of

the number of veterans, this is a reduction from an estimate of between 3,000 and 4,000

down to approximately 1,100. This has been attributed to a combination of reduced

output from the Armed Forces, improved Ministry of Defence (MoD) resettlement

provision and better intervention from ex-Service charities.

The characteristics, proﬁle and experiences of homeless veterans are largely the same

as those of the wider homelessness population, although there are some notable

differences. Homeless veterans have been found on average to be older, have slept

rough for longer, be less likely to use drugs and more likely to have alcohol-related

problems. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has been found among a small number

of homeless veterans although other non-military related mental health problems were

more common.

There is little evidence to support the notion that military life, or institutionalisation, is a

cause of veterans’ homelessness. There is some evidence that, for a minority, military

life, through factors such as trauma of combat, mobility of the job or the drinking culture,

had reduced their ability to cope post-Service.

In some cases, military life had suspended the impact of pre-existing vulnerabilities and

these had resurfaced post-discharge. However, in the main, homelessness had occurred

some time after Service. In common with the wider homeless population, a variety of

factors and events had inﬂuenced and preceded homelessness.

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Numbers on the streets

In general, the available research on the subject

has been small scale with small sample sizes,

and largely focused on the situation in London.

Dandeker et al’s work did pilot a nationwide

study of the subject area which was not

implemented. A common approach has been

to attempt to quantify the presence of veterans

on the streets. The ﬁrst attempt to do this was

undertaken by Randell and Brown, for Crisis

in 1994, who estimated that approximately

one quarter of all single homeless people had

served in the UK Armed Forces. To come to

this ﬁnding the research drew upon existing

government data on single homelessness and

in-depth interviews with homeless veterans and

homelessness service providers. The ﬁnding,

that veterans’ presence amongst the homeless

was hugely disproportionate, was disputed at

the time by both academics and homelessness

professionals.

Publication of this signiﬁcant ﬁnding was at

least partly responsible for a number of military

welfare groups setting up the Ex-Service Action

Group (ESAG). ESAG commissioned their own

research, conducted by Gunner and Knott,

in 1997. They estimated that 22% of London’s

homeless population had a Service history,

backing up Randell and Brown’s disputed

ﬁgures. While they did not survey every hostel

or area of London, they extrapolated their

ﬁgures to estimate that 3,000-4,,000 veterans

were homeless in London each night.

ESAG revisited the issue in 2008

commissioning Johnson et al of the University

of York to take a fresh look at the numbers

in London’s hostels and on its streets. This

Literature review:

UK veterans and homelessness

Homelessness among veterans has been a controversial issue since the Napoleonic

Wars. Today, the media reports on veterans of more recent conﬂicts in Afghanistan

and Iraq, who ﬁnd themselves without a roof continue. There has been a feeling that

veterans are particularly vulnerable to homelessness and are overrepresented amongst

the ranks of those sleeping rough or residing in hostels. A number of researchers have

examined whether either of these assumptions are indeed correct, if so why, and

what can be done to address the issue. This document aims to give a brief review of

these studies to inform the Legion’s service and strategy development in regard to

homelessness amongst our beneﬁciary group.

Previous research has concentrated largely on single men that were previously, or still,

sleeping rough or occupying hostel accommodation. There has been little or no focus

on veterans with dependants who ﬁnd themselves homeless. This is perhaps because

statutory homelessness assistance is easier to access for households with children. This

review will therefore concentrate exclusively on single homeless veterans.

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research estimated that the veteran presence

among London’s single homeless population

had fallen to 6% or approximately 1,100

individuals. They attributed this reduction to a

number of factors including a reduced output

from the Armed Forces, better resettlement

provision by MoD and improved intervention

from ex-Service charities.

Evidence of the size of the problem outside

of London is limited. Glasgow Homelessness

Partnership surveyed the local single homeless

population and found 12% reported having

previously served in the Armed Forces.

The National Audit Ofﬁce, in a 2007 assessment

of the effectiveness of the MoD resettlement

service, surveyed all those that left Service

in 2005 and 2006. Just less than 5% of

respondents, mainly young and of junior

rank, reported that they had been homeless

at some point since leaving the Services. The

majority had experienced this for between one

and six months. If this is extrapolated across

the full 24,000 Service Leavers for the current

period, an estimated 1,200 may experience

homelessness soon after leaving. Unfortunately

the survey doesn’t specify a deﬁnition of

homelessness so the incidents of homelessness

could have encompassed anything from

staying with friends on a temporary basis to

rough sleeping.

Proﬁle

Research studies have explored in greater detail

the characteristics, proﬁles and experiences

of homeless veterans. Some noticeable

differences with the general homeless

population have been highlighted; however, the

similarities are more evident.

With regards to age, Randell and Brown, and

later Gunner and Knott, found that homeless

veterans are older on average than the

general homeless population. Johnson et

al’s work quoted evidence from two services

assisting rough sleepers in London that backed

this up: 44% of veteran clients of CHAIN, a

hostel referral service, were aged 50 or older

compared with only 18% of all their clients. As

part of their research, Johnson et al performed

a 12 month longitudinal study of homeless

veterans, with the average age of participants

being 52 years of age. Indeed, only 22% of

participants in this study were aged under 45.

The homeless veteran population has been

reported as 100% male and predominantly

white (Johnson et al, Rhodes, Randall and

Brown). As the military is 90% male and

predominately white itself, these ﬁndings are

perhaps not surprising.

The clear majority of veterans experiencing

homelessness, in all studies, served in the

Army rather than the Navy or Royal Air Force

(Randell and Brown, Johnson et al, Rhodes).

This will at least in part be explained by the fact

that the Army’s manpower is, and has been,

larger than the other two services combined.

However, as Johnson et al point out, it may

also be attributable to the tendency of the

Army to recruit some of its strength from

educationally- and socially-disadvantaged

backgrounds, which are groups thought to be at

a higher risk of homelessness.

In terms of length of service, those taking part

in Milroy’s study experienced an average of

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four and a half years. Johnson et al found

an average of between seven and eight. It is

often perceived that Early Service Leavers are

particularly vulnerable to homelessness, yet

only one participant had left before completing

basic training, although one in six saw out

less than three years. Only a few had served

more than 20 years, with one in six having

seen out less than three years, half undertaking

between three and nine years and a third ten or

more years. Among Dandeker’s interviewees,

approximately 60% had been discharged

without completing their contracted period.

Experience of rough sleeping

Homeless veterans were found to be more

likely to have slept rough and to have done so

for longer (Randell and Brown). Homelessness

service providers in Gunner and Knott’s work

thought this might be because veterans were

better at surviving on the streets and were also

less likely to engage with support services.

Veterans have reported that they considered

themselves, through their military experiences

and training, better equipped for dealing with

street homelessness than others (Higate).

Lemos and Durckacz found that homeless

veterans considered themselves separate

and perhaps a class above their non-veteran

homeless peers.

Higate argued, based on his interviews with

a number of homeless veterans, against the

idea that intense or traumatic experiences

during Service were inﬂuential in the path to

homelessness. Instead, he claimed that these

men were looking to replicate the resourceful

and masculine persona they held while in

Service, being unable to ﬁnd employment or

conventional lifestyles that allowed for this.

Two studies found veterans as a group have

a particular reluctance to seek help or advice

(Randell and Brown, Gunner and Knott, Lemos

and Durkacz). Johnson et al’s more recent study

found a similar reticence among those they

interviewed but disputed the previous claims

that this was a result of stoicism or ex-Service

independence. Instead they understood it as

being a result of shame, of failure to live up

to certain expected societal norms. Some felt

that to seek assistance from charitable sources

would bring dishonour on their regiment.

Routes to homelessness

Perhaps the most important question when

looking for solutions to homelessness

amongst veterans is how, or why, do they

become homeless. Although Milroy stressed

that there is no single route to homelessness

but instead many different paths, for him his

interviewees split naturally into three groups:

social isolation, chemical addiction and

institutionalisation. In some cases it appeared

on the surface that military service was the

cause of homelessness. However, Milroy

stressed that as his respondents were on

average 47 years of age and had served only

4.5 years different variables and factors outside

of military life had been a major inﬂuence on

the outcome of their lives.

Some overlap can be seen with Lemos and

Durkatz’s ﬁndings on the types of Service

leaver. While they found the majority group

were well prepared by their military experience

for civilian life, two other minority groups

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were evident. One group had problems before

Service, with the military lifestyle offering no

remedy, which simply arose again on or after

departure. Johnson et al described military life

for these individuals, who made up a quarter of

their interviewees, as ‘suspended animation’.

Lemos and Durkatz’s ﬁnal group were those

for whom military life had reduced their

ability to cope beyond Service, with factors

such as trauma of combat, mobility of the job,

separation from family or drinking culture

making them more prone to homelessness.

Johnson et al found a quarter of their

homeless interviewees reported some negative

experiences from their military career including

bullying, drinking or a traumatic incidence.

The largest group in Johnson et al’s study,

accounting for a third of interviewees, were

those whose homelessness was entirely

unrelated to their Service history. They had

succeeded in the transition to civilian life and

didn’t experience homelessness until much

later in life. Homelessness was often preceded

by a particular difﬁculty, such as ﬁnancial crisis,

relationship breakdown or bereavement. In this

regard they are very similar in experience to the

wider homeless population.

The ﬁnal and smallest group in Johnson et al’s

study were those who had enjoyed a successful

military career but found the transition to civvy

street difﬁcult. Maintaining stable employment

or a normal family life for example proved

troublesome, eventually spiralling into

homelessness. There is some correlation here

with Dandeker’s work that while the vast

majority of Service leavers would cope ﬁne,

there were a small number of individuals who

appeared to be at risk of homelessness in the

years following discharge. These people fell

into two groups, with the ﬁrst those being who

left the Armed Forces prematurely as a result

of failing basic training, or who had received

an administrative or medical discharge. In the

same study, less than half of homeless veterans

reported leaving Service at the end of their

contract. The second group were those who,

like the smallest group in Johnson et al’s work,

served for many years but on discharge found

the transition to civilian life difﬁcult.

Overall, there is little support for the popular

assumption that many veterans end up on the

street directly as a result of their experience in

the Armed Forces, although, of the homeless

veterans interviewed in Dandeker’s work, one

quarter did attribute the primary reason for

their homelessness as being their discharge

from the Armed Forces.

Vulnerabilities

Only a small minority report vulnerabilities

and support needs that are unique to a

military career, such as Combat-related Post

Traumatic Stress Disorder (Johnson et al).

Research from the US has reached the same

conclusion. Rosenheck & Fontana concluded

the reasons that veterans became homeless

were multifactorial and broadly the same as

that found among the non-veteran homeless

population.

It has also been found that homeless veterans’

vulnerabilities and support needs, substance

abuse, poor physical and mental health, are

largely similar in nature to the wider homeless

population (Johnson et al). While the types of

support needs might be broadly similar, it has

been argued that the veterans tend to be more

complex (Randell and Brown, Johnson et al).

Dandeker reported veterans being more likely

to report physical health problems than the

general homeless population.

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However, homeless veterans were more likely

to report alcohol-related problems. A number

of research studies have reported links between

an Armed Forces drinking culture and the

alcohol problems of the homeless veterans

(Randell and Brown, Johnson et al, Milroy,

Gunner and Knott).

Gunner and Knott, however, found homeless

veterans were less likely to have drug abuse

issues. CHAIN statistics have backed this up

with reporting of lower incidences of drug use

among this group, at 24% compared to 34% for

all of their homeless clients. This may be in part

accounted for by the higher average age of the

group and also to the strict penalties for drug

misuse in the Armed Forces.

Mental health problems are commonly

reported among homeless veterans. Randell

and Brown’s (1994) participants reported high

levels of mental health issues, with 23% having

spent time in a psychiatric unit. There has

been a popular feeling that PTSD is suffered

frequently by veterans who ﬁnd life difﬁcult.

However, while both Johnson et al and Milroy

reported the presence of PTSD among their

subjects, it was still a minority condition.

More commonly, mental health conditions

were reported to have developed as a result of

childhood or post-Service experiences.

Prevention and assistance

There is a range of information and services

available to Service leavers and veterans to

assist them with accessing and maintaining

suitable accommodation both on discharge

and later in life. The purpose of much of the

research discussed above, and indeed this

review, has been to consider in light of their

ﬁndings where such provision might be

improved.

Many of the older homeless participants in

the studies reported that they received no

assistance on discharge, for example 72% of

Dandeker’s interviewees said they received no

resettlement package. However, this provision

has greatly improved for more recent Service

Leavers with wide ranging resettlement

packages now provided. However, this is not

given to those considered Early Service Leavers

(ESL’s), for example compulsory discharges,

those that fail basic training or fail to complete

four years of Service. They instead receive only

basic resettlement assistance but are given an

increased package if considered ‘vulnerable’.

This seems particularly concerning especially

in light of the fact that a large percentage of

Dandeker’s homeless interviewees left Service

before the end of their contracted period. Both

the NAO and Johnson et al have recommended

that those making the vulnerability assessment

should be better trained. The latter also

recommended that the Armed Forces should be

more proactive in monitoring post-discharge

those considered at risk of social isolation.

Johnson et al highlighted that homeless

veterans have a much wider level of support

available to them than the wider homeless

population. Despite this, many of the

participants in their research, although having

experienced the MoD resettlement package,

and in some cases having been homeless for 18

months, were still unaware of the mainstream

military charity assistance available to them.

They recommended that veteran charities

needed to improve awareness of their services.

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Johnson et al also suggested that veterans

needed to be informed of their entitlement to

services as a way of overcoming any shame

or pride element that discourages them from

making use of what is available.

In regards to those veterans, identiﬁed by

Dandeker, who after ﬁnishing a lengthy career

ﬁnd transition to civilian life difﬁcult, Lemos

and Durkatz recommended that, for those

at risk of this, military life should be made,

as far as is operationally possible, as close

as possible to civilian life: keeping families

together, allowing roots to be made and

increasing opportunities to socialise with

civilians.

Johnson et al recommended that the ex-

Service charities could play a greater role in

providing settled, post-hostel accommodation

for homeless veterans and providing greater

support in terms of sustaining tenancies.

They also suggested that there was a gap in

provision in terms of support for low-level

mental health problems and avoidance of the

social isolation that can undermine attempts to

avoid alcohol and substance abuse.

Further research

There is a fair body of work that explores

homelessness among veterans in the UK,

although this has been particularly focused

on London. Despite slightly differing ﬁndings,

there is a consensus of sorts that the routes

to and causes of homelessness are wide,

multi-factored and that, while often inﬂuenced

by a military career, homelessness is rarely

simply a direct result of it. Further qualitative

research may provide some improved level of

understanding but there is no great knowledge

gap. However, Johnson et al suggest that

an increased knowledge beyond that of the

situation in London might shed light on any

unmet need.

Bibliography

Ballingtyne and Hanks (2000), Lest We Forget: Ex-

Servicemen and Homelessness, Crisis.

Dandeker, Thomas, Dolan, Chapman, Ross

(2005),Feasibility study on the extent, causes, impact

and costs of rough sleeping and homelessness

amongst ex-Service personnel in a sample of local

authorities in England, KCMHR, Kings College.

Glasgow Homelessness Partnership (2006), Veterans

Scotland Survey: Evaluation Report, Glasgow

Homelessness Partnership.

Gunner and Knott (1997), Homeless on Civvy Street:

Survey of Homelessness amongst Ex-Servicemen,

Ex-Service Action Group.

Higate (2000), Tough Bodies and Rough Sleeping,

Embodying Homelessness Amongst ex-Servicemen,

Housing Theory and Society, 17(3): 97-108

Johnson et al (2008), The experiences of Homeless

Ex-Service Personnel in London, Centre for Housing

Policy, University of York.

Lemos and Durkacz, The experiences of people who

become homeless after military service, Lemos and

Crane.

Milroy (2001), Pathways to the Street for Ex-Service

Personnel; An Examination of Various Routes to

Homelessness for Ex-Service Personnel, University

of East Anglia.

National Audit Ofﬁce (2007), Ministry of Defence,:

Leaving the Services, The Stationery Ofﬁce.

Randell and Brown (1994), Falling Out: A Research

Study of Homeless Ex-Service People, Crisis.

Rhodes, Pleace and Fitzpatrick (2006), The Numbers

and Characteristics of Homeless Ex-Service People

in London: A Review of the Existing Data, Centre for

Housing Policy, University of York.